SOCIAL STUDIES NOTES: GRADE 8
CHAPTER 6 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION: 1776-1783
Section 1: A Nation Declares Independence
I. A Call for Independence
-Both Patriots and Loyalists were in a minority at the start of 1776. Most colonists were in the middle with no strong feelings about the dispute with Britain.
-Even within the Continental Congress, support for independence was limited to about one third of the delegates.
-In January 1776, a 50-page pamphlet titled Common Sense was published in Philadelphia. The pamphlet stimulated strong support for independence.
-The author, Thomas Paine, called King George III a “royal brute.” Paine ridiculed the very idea of rule by kings. Americans, he said, would be far better off if they governed themselves.
-Paine’s strong logic and powerful words inspired people in all the colonies.
-Paine’s pamphlet increased support for independence within the Continental Congress. In May 1776, Virginia authorized its delegates to support independence.
-Soon after, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution proclaiming that “these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States.”
-Before voting on Lee’s resolution, Congress appointed a committee to draw up a statement stating the reasons for separation from Britain. Thomas Jefferson was given the task of composing the declaration.
II. The Declaration of Independence
-The Declaration of Independence is a brilliant piece of writing. Building on the ideas of the Enlightenment, it uses step-by-step logic to explain why the colonists wanted to break away from British rule.
-The Declaration begins with a preamble. It says that, “a decent respect to the opinions of mankind” requires that Americans explain why they are breaking away from Britain.
-The Declaration is divided into three main sections. The first section states some general ideas about society and government. “We hold these truths to be self-evident.” First among these truths is that “all men are created equal.” Jefferson goes on to state that everyone is “endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights.” This statement is based on John Locke’s ideas about natural rights.
-Like Locke, Jefferson goes on to state that governments are created in order to protect people’s rights. And, like Locke, he concludes that if a government violates those rights, the people have the right to abolish their government and create another.
-Jefferson’s next task was to prove that the British government had, in fact, violated the rights of the colonists. So the next section details a long list of specific grievances against King George III.
-Many grievances accused the king of ignoring rights that English citizens had enjoyed since the time of the Magna Carta. The Declaration thus condemns the king “for depriving us, in many cases, of trial by jury.” The Declaration also charges the king with “imposing taxes on us without our consent”—another violation of traditional English rights.
-The Declaration goes on to say that because King George has ignored the petitions of the colonists, he must be considered “unfit to be the ruler of a free people.”
-After stating the basic principle that the people have a right to abolish an unjust government and showing that the king has violated the rights of the colonists, the Declaration reaches a logical conclusion. It asserts that the colonies are “free and independent states…and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be totally dissolved.”
III. Impact of the Declaration
-When Congress met to debate Lee’s resolution, it still was not certain that they would declare independence. But on July 4, 1776, Congress approved the Declaration of Independence.
-The actual signing of the Declaration took place on July 2, 1776.
-For the delegates who signed it, the personal risk was great. If captured by the British, they could be hanged.
-The Declaration of Independence changed the nature of the Revolution. No longer were the patriots fighting for fairer treatment from Britain. Now they were fighting to create a new nation.
Section 2: A Critical Time
I. Retreat from New York
-In mid-1776, the heavy fighting shifted from New England to the Middle States. There the Continental army suffered through the worst days of the war.
-In June 1776, just as the Continental Congress was considering independence, a large British fleet arrived in New York. Washington’s army was no match for the British. Howe had about 34,000 well-trained troops and 10,000 sailors, as well as ships to ferry them ashore. Washington had fewer than 20,000 poorly trained troops and no navy.
-That summer saw a long series of battles and American retreats. In the Battle of Long Island, in August 1776, the British drove Washington’s troops out of Brooklyn.
-The following month, Washington had to abandon New York City.
-During the fight for New York, Nathan Hale became an American legend. Hale was a Connecticut officer whose mission was to collect information about British battle plans on Long Island.
-Caught behind British lines, Hale was tried and condemned to death. He was hanged the next morning. It was reported that his last words were, “I only regret that I have but one life to lose for my country.”
II. Surprises for the British
-Under relentless British pursuit, the Continental army kept retreating. In December, it crossed the Delaware River into Pennsylvania. Patriot spirits were low, and many soldiers deserted.
-Thomas Paine had retreated with the army, and to raise morale, he wrote another pamphlet called The Crisis which urged people to support the army despite hard times.
-Paine wrote, “These are times that try men’s souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of his country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman.”
-Washington had The Crisis read aloud to his troops. At the same time, he made plans for a bold attack.
-On Christmas night, 1776, Washington led 2,400 men across the river in small boats. Early on December 26, they attacked Trenton from two sides achieving complete surprise.
-The attack brought a ringing American victory. Pursued by the British, Washington used a clever trick to escape. His soldiers made camp near Trenton and lit campfires. After dark, most of the men packed up and quietly withdrew. The British did not discover the trick until daylight when the main body of soldiers attacked and heavily damaged a British force near Princeton.
III. Saratoga: A Turning Point
-British General John Burgoyne came up with a plan he hoped would quickly end the rebellion. His goal was to cut New England off from the rest of the states.
-Burgoyne’s plan called for British forces to drive toward Albany, New York, from three directions.
-Burgoyne led the main British force from Canada in June. After recapturing Fort Ticonderoga, they slowly pushed south dragging a large train of baggage carts through the woods. Supplies were running short.
-Americans were rushing to block the British. By September, the American commander in New York, Horatio Gates, had 6,000 men ready to fight. At the village of Saratoga, New York, the Americans surrounded the British. After suffering heavy casualties, Burgoyne surrendered on October 17,1777.
-The Battle of Saratoga marked a major turning point in the war. The American victory ended the British threat to New England and destroyed British hopes of an easy victory.
-It also lifted Patriot spirits at a time when Washington’s army was suffering defeats. Perhaps most important, the Battle of Saratoga helped convince Europeans that the Americans had a sound chance of winning.
IV. Help From Overseas
-Soon after Saratoga, France agreed to openly support American independence. In February 1778, France officially formed an alliance with the United States.
-France was eager to weaken Britain. Even before Saratoga, the French had secretly supplied money and arms to the Americans. But the French did not want to take an open stand until it seemed the Americans might win.
-France and its allies in the Netherlands and Spain also went to war with Britain. By carrying the fight to Europe and the Caribbean, the allies forced the British to wage war on many fronts. This helped the American cause because the British could spare fewer troops to fight in North America.
-A number of Europeans, inspired by the American struggle for liberty, volunteered to serve with American forces.
-A French noble, the Marquis de Lafayette, became a high ranking officer in Washington’s army.
-Volunteers from Poland also made vital contributions to the Patriot war effort. Thaddeus Kosciusko was an engineer who took charge of building fortifications at West Point. Casimir Pulaski led and trained cavalry.
-A German baron, Friedrich von Steuben, helped train the Continental army. Steuben had served in the Prussian army which was considered the best in Europe. Before he arrived in early 1778, American troops were often poorly trained and undisciplined. His methods helped transform raw recruits into soldiers and shaped the Continental army into a more effective fighting force.
V. Valley Forge
-Washington’s Continental army suffered through the cruel winter of 1777-1778 in a hastily built camp at Valley Forge in Pennsylvania.
-Meanwhile, some 22 miles away, British officers in Philadelphia danced the winter away in a merry round of parties and balls.
-The 11,000 Continental soldiers were not sufficiently fed, clothed, or housed. At any one time, about one soldier in four was sick with chills, fever, or worse.
-When Americans learned about conditions at Valley Forge, they sent help.
-Despite its woes, the Continental army used that winter to gather strength for the battles that lay ahead. Steuben’s drills sharpened the soldiers’ skills and discipline.
Section 3: The War Widens
I. African Americans in the War
-African Americans fought on both sides of the American Revolution. For them, the war meant both danger and opportunity.
-From the beginning, free African Americans took part in the war. Enslaved people served as well.
-The British offered freedom to enslaved people who deserted and joined the British. Many thousands did so.
-On the American side, Washington at first refused to accept African American soldiers. But the British offer of freedom to enslaved people made Washington change his policy. By the end of the war, some 7,000 African Americans had served on the American side.
-During the Revolution, a number of northern states took steps to end slavery.
II. The War at Home
-Many men enlisted in the military. After a set term, usually, one year, they were free to leave. Thus, Washington had to struggle constantly to keep the ranks of his army filled.
-Civilians also faced hardships. They were often subject to food shortages and military attack.
-As men went to war, women took over many of their duties. On farms, women planted crops and cared for livestock.
-In battles, many women cared for the wounded.
-The added responsibilities of wartime, gave many women a new confidence.
-Paying for the war was a difficult task. Congress had limited resources. With no power to tax, Congress had to plead with the states for money. However, the states had little money themselves.
-To pay and supply troops, Congress printed Continentals or paper money. But the more money Congress printed, the less the money was worth. By the end of the war, paper money had lost almost all its value.
III. Fighting in the West
-Throughout most of the American Revolution, attention was mainly focused on the 13 states along the Atlantic coast. However, skirmishes and battles occurred on the western front as well.
-Americans tried to keep the Native Americans neutral. They offered payments to groups willing to remain at peace. Still, most Native American groups sided with Britain. They feared that an American victory would mean more settlers moving west or south onto Native American land.
-Seeking to defend against attacks on the frontier, Virginia sent George Rogers Clark and a militia force to strike at British forts beyond the Appalachian Mountains in 1778. Clark’s forces easily captured two Mississippi River outposts, Kaskaskia and Cahokia.
-In early 1779, Clark and his men seized the fort at Vincennes.
-Clark’s victories allowed settlers to remain on the frontier. This strengthened the American claim on the Ohio Valley area.
-The Americans got unofficial help from Spain. At the time, Spain governed Louisiana, the land west of the Mississippi stretching as far north as Canada. The Spanish were eager to get back Florida which they had lost to Britain at the end of the French and Indian War.
-Even before Spain declared war against Britain in 1779, Louisiana governor Bernardo de Galvez was secretly providing money and munitions to George Rogers Clark and other Americans. He also gave American ships safe refuge in New Orleans’ harbor.
-From 1779 to 1781, Galvez played a key role in Spanish attacks that captured British forts on the Mississippi River and Gulf of Mexico.
-In 1781, Americans sought financial help from the Spanish colony of Cuba. A group of wealthy women, the “Havana’s Ladies,” were especially generous. They sent some 7 million dollars to the Americans. Without the contribution of these women, Washington’s army might have run short of needed funds at a critical point in the war.
IV. The War at Sea
-Congress had voted to create a Continental navy as early as 1775, but American shipyards were able to build only a few warships.
-With such a small navy to go against the powerful British fleet, the Americans became skilled at making hit-and-run attacks on British shipping.
-Still Britain dominated the seas. The British fleet blocked most ships from entering or leaving American ports.
-The navy had help from some 800 privateers that harassed British shipping. Operating like pirate ships, privateers seized cargoes of rum from the West Indies, wool from England, and furs from Canada. Such attacks forced Britain to spend valuable resources protecting merchant ships.
Section 4: Winning Independence
I. Fighting Moves South
-The British shifted their attention to the South late in 1778. Their aim was to capture some key cities, win over the local population, and then march north, acquiring one state after another.
-At first, the plan seemed to work. British soldiers moved north from Florida to Georgia. In December 1778, the British took the city of Savannah. Within a month, they controlled most of Georgia.
-Moving on to South Carolina, the British captured the main port Charles Town, and then the rest of the state.
-The British commander, Lord Charles Cornwallis, then carried the war into North Carolina.
-To slow the British advance, Americans used guerrilla tactics. In South Carolina, Francis Marion led his men silently through the swamps. They attacked without warning, then escaped.
-Elsewhere in the South, Loyalist bands roamed the backcountry. They plundered and burned Patriot farms, killing men, women, and children.
-Patriot fortunes began to improve in October 1780. Some 900 frontier fighters defeated a larger force of British troops and Loyalists atop King’s Mountain in South Carolina.
-In December 1780, General Nathanael Greene took over command of the Continental Army in the South. He split his army in two, leading 1,200 men into eastern South Carolina and leaving General Daniel Morgan with 800 men in the west.
-In January 1781, Morgan won a clear victory at the Battle of Cowpens.
-Still the British seemed to have the upper hand in the South. In addition to Cornwallis’s forces, the British had troops under the command of an American traitor Benedict Arnold.
-Early in the war, Arnold had fought bravely for the Patriots. But Arnold felt Congress undervalued him. He plotted to turn West Point, a key fort on the Hudson River in New York, over to the British. When the plot was discovered in September 1780, Arnold escaped to Virginia where he and his Loyalist soldiers staged a series of destructive raids.
-Weakened by battles like Cowpens, Cornwallis headed to Virginia. Patriot forces, led by Greene, then swept through the Deep South. By late summer, only Charles Town and Savannah remained in British hands.
-Cornwallis then made a fateful mistake. He moved his main army to the Yorktown peninsula, a tongue of Virginia land poking into the Chesapeake Bay. There, he thought, the British fleet could reinforce his position. But at the end of August, the French fleet arrived off Yorktown and chased off British ships.
-At the same time, Washington rushed toward Virginia with American and French troops. Cornwallis found himself in a trap. American and French soldiers barred escape by land, while the French fleet blocked escape by sea.
-After three weeks, Cornwallis had no option but to surrender.
-On October 19, 1781, the British surrendered. The victory at Yorktown was the last major battle of the war.
II. Making Peace with Britain
-The news from Yorktown caused shockwaves in Britain. Although the king wanted to keep fighting, Parliament voted in favor of peace.
-Peace talks began in Paris in 1782. Britain was eager for peace, so the Americans got most of what they wanted.
-The talks led to an agreement, the Treaty of Paris. Britain recognized the independence of the United States. The boundaries of the new nation were set at the Atlantic on the east, Canada on the north, the Mississippi River on the west, and Florida on the south.
-Florida itself was returned to Spain.
-On April 15, 1783, Congress approved the treaty. The war was officially over almost eight years since the “shot heard round the world” started the fighting at Lexington.
-On December 4, 1783, Washington and his ranking officers were united for one last meal together. In parting, each man embraced Washington who wished to retire to his plantation.
III. Impact of the Revolution
-The immediate effect of the American Revolution was to create a new nation of 13 independent states, linked by ties of custom and history.
-The impact of American independence reached beyond the borders of the infant nation. In 1789, French citizens rebelled. Leaders of the French Revolution, including Lafayette, looked to the American example. They issued the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen, modeled in part on the Declaration of Independence.