MEDIEVAL HISTORY NOTES: GRADE 7
CHAPTER 4 CIVILIZATIONS ASIA
Section 1: Golden Ages of China
I. Introduction
-In spite of its name, the Silk Road was not a single road. It was a long chain of connecting trade routes across Central Asia. These routes stretched about 4,000 miles, all the way from China to the eastern Mediterranean Sea.
-For centuries, camels, horses, and donkeys carried traders and their precious goods along the Silk Road. Most of the goods they carried were small and very valuable. One—a beautiful, lightweight fabric called silk—was so important that it gave the route its name.
II. The Tang Dynasty
-China covers much of East Asia. It is an immense land with a varied landscape.
-In the east are lowland and coastal regions. Fertile valleys lie along the Chang and Huang rivers.
-To the north and west of these farmlands are great deserts and mountainous regions, including the Gobi Desert in the north and the Plateau of Tibet in the west.
-Under the Tang, the land under Chinese control stretched westward into Central Asia. Peoples from these distant areas and traders traveling along the Silk Road introduced new ideas—as well as new goods—to China.
-In return, the Chinese traded their tea, jade, ivory, ceramics, and silk. Chinese ideas and inventions also spread to other nations. Such exchanges helped China become an important center of trade and culture.
-Throughout its long history, China has been ruled by many different dynasties. For example, the Han dynasty ruled China from 206 B.C. to A.D. 220.
-After the collapse of the Han dynasty, China broke up into several kingdoms, but Chinese culture survived. Buddhism spread throughout China, and the arts and learning continued to develop.
-In 581, the Sui dynasty came to power. The Sui ruled only until 618, but they united the north and south of China for the first time in centuries.
-In 618, the Sui dynasty was overthrown. The Tang came to power and ruled China for almost 300 years. The Tang dynasty was a golden age of political and cultural achievement.
-Under Tang rule, China grew in both area and population. Its capital, Chang’an, was the world’s largest city at that time. Historians estimate that it was home to about one million people.
-Tang leaders continued projects that had been started under the Sui. One of the largest of these projects was the creation of a huge canal.
-The Grand Canal was a waterway that linked the Huang River and the Chang River. At more than 1,000 miles long, it is still the longest canal ever built.
-The Grand Canal helped join northern and southern China and made it possible to supply the capital with large amounts of grain grown in the south.
-The greatest ruler of the Tang dynasty was Tang Taizong. He began his military career at the age of 16 and helped his father establish the Tang dynasty.
-During his rule, from 626 to 649, he was not only a successful general, but also a scholar and historian. In addition, Tang Taizong was a master of calligraphy, the art of beautiful handwriting.
-Later in his reign, Tang Taizong grew tired of war. He had been studying the teachings of Confucius. Confucius wanted to bring peace and stability to China. To create this kind of society, Confucius said, all people must treat one another with respect.
-Tang Taizong began to reform the government according to Confucius’ ideas. The Tang government hired officials trained in Confucian philosophy. It also began land reform, giving more land to the peasants who farmed it.
III. The Song Dynasty
-After 850, China’s control of its westernmost lands weakened. Then fighting among different groups within China ended the Tang dynasty. Order was restored about 50 years later by the Song, the dynasty that ruled China from 960 to 1279.
-At the beginning of the Song dynasty, the Chinese capital was located at Kaifeng, along the Grand Canal. After the Song lost control of regions to the north, they moved the capital to Hangzhou, near the coast.
-The Song rulers made many advances in government. They expanded the merit system of hiring government officials. Under this system, officials had to pass tests and prove their ability to do the work.
-Before the Song, officials came from rich and powerful families. They were allowed to keep their positions for life even if they did not do a good job. Hiring people based on their abilities, rather than on their wealth or social position, greatly improved the Chinese government.
-During the Song dynasty, new strains of rice and better irrigation methods helped peasants grow more rice. These two improvements allowed farmers to produce two crops a year instead of one. Food surpluses meant that more people could follow other trades or pursue the arts.
-Chinese rulers supported many different forms of art, including music and poetry. Some rulers also prized graceful art objects, such as those made from porcelain, a white and very hard type of ceramic.
-Because it was first made in China, porcelain is often called china. Because the Chinese produced the best porcelain in the world, it became an important item for trade.
-Another item of great beauty and value was silk. Silk comes from the cocoons of caterpillars called silkworms. For a long time, only the Chinese knew how to make silk. Even after others learned the method, Chinese silk was still the highest quality in the world.
-One of the historic Song inventions was a new way to print books. For centuries, the Chinese had carved the characters of each page onto a wooden block. They brushed ink over the carving and laid a piece of paper on it to print the page.
-Printers could make many copies of a book using these blocks, but carving the block for each page took a long time. Around 1045, Bi Sheng developed a printing method that used moveable type. He made many separate characters out of clay and rearranged them to make each page.
-During the Song dynasty, books became less expensive. In earlier times, only the rich could buy them. With more people able to afford books, the number and kinds of books increased. More people, including women, learned to read and write.
-They helped to spread knowledge throughout China.
-This Song saying reflects the new importance of books: “To enrich your family, no need to buy good land. Books hold a thousand measures of grain. For an easy life, no need to build a mansion: In books are found houses of gold.”
IV. The Mongols Conquer China
-The Mongols were nomads from the plains of Central Asia, north of China. They were fierce warriors, said to “live in the saddle” because they spent so much time on horseback.
-By the 1200s, they were a tough military force. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, they began forging an empire that eventually included China and Korea in the east, stretched into Russia and Eastern Europe in the west, and extended to the southwest as far as the Persian Gulf.
-Genghis Khan had conquered all of northern China by 1215. But the southern Song empire continued to resist. It was left to Genghis Khan’s grandson Kublai Khan to complete the conquest of China and to rule it.
-Kublai Khan came to power in 1259. Within 20 years, he had toppled the last Song emperor. From his capital at the present-day city of Beijing, Kublai Kahn declared himself emperor of China.
-He named his new dynasty Yuan, which means “beginning,” because he intended that Mongol rule of China would last for centuries.
-The Mongols centralized government in China. They did not allow the old Chinese ruling class to govern. High government positions were reserved for Mongols and were even given to foreigners rather than to Chinese.
-The Mongols also kept their own language and customs rather than adopting Chinese culture. They did, however, allow the practice of many religions.
-Visitors from all lands were welcome at Kublai Khan’s court. One of these was Ibn Battutah, an African Muslim. Another was a Christian from Europe, Marco Polo. He came from Venice in present-day Italy in 1271.
-After returning to Europe, Polo wrote about his travels. He described the riches of Kublai Khan’s palace, China’s efficient mail system, and its well-maintained roads.
-Marco Polo’s writings sparked increased trade between Europe and China. China prospered under Kublai Khan, but not under the khans, or emperors, who followed him.
-In 1368, a Chinese peasant led an uprising that overthrew the foreign rulers and ended Mongol rule of China.
Section 2: Medieval Japan
I. Introduction
-In A.D. 882 a group of more than 100 officials sailed across the sea to Japan. They were from a kingdom in Manchuria, north of China. They carried greetings for the Japanese emperor.
-When the emperor heard the news, he was pleased. This visit would give the Japanese a chance to display their achievements. The emperor’s name was Yozei. At the time, he was only 14 years old.
II. A Country of Islands
-Japan is an archipelago, or chain of many islands, in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of the Asian mainland. It is about 500 miles from the coast of China but it is only 100 miles from Korea.
-The islands of Japan were formed by volcanoes, and earthquakes are common in the region.
-The islands of Japan are mountainous. The mountains make traveling by land difficult. As a result, the sea became an important highway for the Japanese.
-On the other hand, for centuries the sea helped to protect Japan from invaders. Over time, this isolation also led the Japanese to develop a distinctive way of life.
III. The Heian Empire
-The emperor Yozei ruled Japan during the Heian period, which lasted from 794 to 1185. Before this time, Japan’s culture—including its literature, laws, and religion—was similar to China’s.
-But during the 800s, Japan began to develop its own traditions. In fact, official relations between the Japanese and Chinese governments ended in 894. The split would last for more than 500 years.
-Heian emperors ruled from a new capital, Kyoto. Modeled after Chang’an, the great city of Tang China, it was a rectangle of tree-lined streets.
-The Heian period was a mostly peaceful time, during which Japanese culture thrived. Fine architecture, literature, and beautiful gardens all became a part of life for the nobility.
-Life for most of the population, however, was very different. Farmers, fishers, traders, and builders were usually poor and spent their time doing hard work.
-The nobles believed that the importance of their families and their positions within the government set them apart from others. But even among the nobles, people belonged to different ranks or classes.
-In fact, noblemen wore specially colored robes related to their position in society. Noblewomen were not affected by such rules because they could not hold official positions in the government.
IV. Feudalism in Japan
-During the 1000s, the Japanese emperor began to lose power. He continued to rule the capital, but he had less control over the rest of Japan.
-At the same time, the nobles gained greater power and wealth. They owned estates, or large tracts of land, outside the capital. The work on these estates was done by peasants.
-This kind of economic system, in which poor people are legally bound to work for wealthy landowners, is called feudalism.
-Rich estate owners became so independent that they often disobeyed the emperor. They even hired private armies. The nobles paid these armies to defend them, their estates, and the peasants who worked for them.
-The armies were made up of warriors called samurai.
-Samurai warriors followed a strict set of rules for behavior, called bushido. They swore an oath to follow these rules without question.
-According to bushido, honor meant more than wealth or even life itself. The code said that a samurai must never show weakness or surrender to an enemy. The true samurai had no fear of death, and would rather die than shame himself.
-Over time, the samurai warriors grew in number and formed their own clans. Each clan promised loyalty to a powerful warlord, or daimyo. The daimyo expected his samurai warriors to be willing to give their lives for him.
-As the different warlords grew in power, small wars broke out among them. Eventually, the Minamoto clan became the most powerful.
-In 1192, the emperor gave the title of shogun, or supreme military commander, to the leader of the Minamoto clan. Minamoto Yoritomo became the supreme ruler of all Japan. He set up the Kamakura shogunate, a series of military dynasties.
V. Japan and the Outside World
-Within a century after shogun rule began, Japan was threatened by outsiders. One group came from Mongolia, north of China. Under their fierce and brilliant leader Kublai Khan, the Mongols had already conquered China and Korea.
-Kublai Khan tried to invade Japan twice, and failed both times. For nearly 300 years after the Mongols were defeated in the 1200s, few foreigners came to Japan.
-In 1543, several Portuguese ships were blown off course and landed on Japan’s coast. The Japanese showed great interest in the foreigners—especially in their guns.
-In the years that followed, a lively trade developed between East and West. Many European traders and missionaries made the long voyage to these islands in the Pacific.
-And thousands of Japanese converted to Christianity. The European influence in Japan did not last long, however.
-In 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu became shogun. Ieyasu was determined to bring order to the country. To end the fighting among warring samurai bands, Ieyasu divided Japan into about 250 regions.
-The Tokugawa shogunate ruled Japan until 1867. It was a period of peace. Food was plentiful, the population increased, trade flourished inside Japan, and a merchant class developed.
-A type of Buddhism called Zen became popular in Japan. It emphasized meditation, the practice of good deeds, and reverence for nature.
-Theater and poetry also thrived under the Tokugawas. Haiku—three line poems that express a feeling or picture in only 17 syllables—were greatly admired.
-Plays featuring life-sized puppets were popular. So was the Kabuki theater. Kabuki combines drama, dance, and music.
-At the same time, the Tokugawa shogunate was isolating Japan from foreign influences. Even Tokugawa Ieyasu had worried that Europeans might try to conquer Japan.
-He and the shoguns who ruled after him, decided that Japan should remain isolated from Westerners. They outlawed Christianity and forced Europeans to leave.
-By 1638, they had closed Japan’s ports, banning most foreign travel and trade. The shoguns also stopped the building of large ships that could travel long distances. For more than 200 years, the Japanese would remain cut off from the outside world.
Section 3: The Great Mughal Empire in India
I. Introduction
-Even before Timur invaded India, people there had heard of this Mongol conqueror. He had destroyed entire cities and their populations in other parts of Asia.
-In 1398, he and his troops marched into northern India, in search of fabled riches. They ruined fields of crops and quickly captured Delhi, the capital city.
-Timur and his troops killed many people and took hundreds of slaves. They also carried away great treasures—pearls, golden dishes, rubies, and diamonds.
-For a brief time, Delhi became part of the huge empire that Timur controlled from his capital, Samarkand. But Timur was more interested in conquering new lands than in governing those he had defeated.
-Not long after the Mongols invaded Delhi, they departed. Once again, a sultan, or Muslim ruler, took control of the city. But Delhi did not regain its command over the region.
II. India’s Geography
-The triangular Indian subcontinent forms the southernmost part of central Asia. A mountain range called the Himalayas stretches across the north of India. Although these mountains have helped to isolate India from lands to the north, the passes through the Himalayas have allowed some conquerors from the north to enter the subcontinent.
-To the west of India is the Arabian Sea, and to the east is the Bay of Bengal.
-A large plain lies to the south of the Himalayas. It is dominated by major river systems, including the Indus and Ganges rivers. These rivers are fed by melting mountain snows, and much of the land here is well suited to farming.
-Farther to the south are highlands and plains.
III. The Delhi Sultanate
-The Mongols led by Timur were not the first people to invade India. Long before they came, India’s riches had tempted others.
-Muslim invaders began raiding the Indian subcontinent around A.D. 1000. From 1206 to 1526, a series of sultans controlled northern India as well as parts of present-day Bangladesh and Pakistan.
-This period of India’s history is called the Delhi Sultanate—after the capital city, Delhi.
-At the time of the Muslim invasion, the region was experiencing a revival of the ancient Hindu religion. This revival had begun about A.D. 600.
-Hindus accept many gods, but they believe that all of these gods are just different aspects of one supreme being. Hindus also believe that social classes are part of the natural order of the universe.
-In India at this time, the Hindu caste system—a strict system of social classes—controlled everyday life. Castes determined a person’s job and status.
-At the top of the caste were priests, teachers, and judges. Warriors were second. Then came farmers and merchants. The fourth class included craftspeople and laborers.
-Finally, there was a group of poor, powerless people who were called untouchables.
-The Muslims who controlled the Delhi Sultanate did not become part of Hindu society. Muslim culture is based on beliefs that are very different from those of Hindu culture.
-These differences caused conflicts between the two groups. In fact, religious disagreements still divide the Hindus and Muslims who live in India today.
-In 1526, a Mongol prince named Babur took advantage of the weakened Delhi Sultanate. Babur was a Muslim descendant of the Mongol conqueror Timur. Even though Babur and his troops were outnumbered almost ten to one, they attacked the sultan’s army.
-The sultan’s forces had 100 elephants to help them fight. Babur’s troops had none. But the Mongols had cannons—and they were better fighters.
-The prince defeated the sultan and went on to control the capital city, Delhi. A new period of India’s history would now begin.
IV. The Mughal Empire
-Babur founded the celebrated Mughal Empire whose Muslim rulers controlled India until the 1700s. Mughal is another word for Mongol.
-About 25 years after Babur’s death, the empire came under the control of Babur’s grandson. His name was Akbar, and he would become the greatest Mughal leader of India.
-When Akbar came to power, he was only 13 years old. He grew up to become a talented soldier. Through conquest, treaties, and marriage, he greatly expanded the Mughal Empire.
-Akbar also encouraged the arts. He set up studios for painters at his court. He supported poets. Akbar also brought together scholars from different religions for discussions. He consulted with Muslims, Hindus, Buddhists, and Christians.
-Although he was a Muslim, Akbar gained the support of his Hindu subjects through his policy of toleration. He allowed Hindus to practice their religion freely, and he ended unfair taxes that had been required of non-Muslims.
-Akbar created a strong central government, and he gave government jobs to qualified people, whatever their religion or caste.
-These policies helped Hindus and Muslims live together more peacefully. They also strengthened Mughal power in India.
-In 1605, when Akbar died, most of northern India was under his control. Akbar had ruled the Mughal Empire for 49 years, earning himself the nickname “the Great.”
-During this long reign, his system of government had become firmly established in India. This system allowed the empire to continue developing and expanding for the next 100 years—even under rulers who were less capable than Akbar the Great.
-More than 100 years after Akbar’s death, the Mughal Empire began to fall apart. Akbar’s grandson, Shah Jahan, became emperor in 1628. Jahan spent a fortune on extravagant buildings.
-The most famous of these is the Taj Mahal, a tomb for the emperor’s wife Mumtaz Mahal.
-When his wife died, Jahan was overcome with grief. The two had been constant companions, and Jahan had asked his wife’s opinion on many issues. After she died, Jahan set out to build a tomb “as beautiful as she was beautiful.”
-Jahan’s son, Aurangzeb, spent still more money on expensive wars. He also reversed Akbar’s policies toward Hindus. Aurangzeb tried to force Hindus to convert to the Muslim faith, and he began to tax them again.
-As a result, many Hindus rebelled, and fighting the rebels cost still more money. After Aurangzeb died in 1707, the empire split into small kingdoms.
-But to this day, people from around the globe journey to see his mother’s tomb—a lasting reminder of the once great Mughal Empire.
-The seven greatest accomplishments of the Song Dynasty were the expansion of the merit system, the invention of paper money, the compass, printing, and gunpowder, the expansion of the trade in silk and porcelain, and advances in agriculture that included the discovery of new strains of rice and better irrigation methods which allowed farmers to grow two crops per year.
-The Tokugawa shogunate closed off trade with the west because he feared that the Europeans would invade Japan and destroy its way of life just as they had done to the Aztecs, Incas, and Filipinos. He especially feared the Catholic Church and its 300,000 followers. Many of the daimyos were Catholic, and he believed that their attachment to the European Church and the European trade network might make them less loyal to Japan and to his government.
-Feudalism began in Japan because during the 1000s, the emperor began to lose power. At the same time, the wealthy landowners or nobles gained greater power and riches. These rich landowners grew so independent that they sometimes disobeyed the emperor. As the emperor’s power declined, these feudal lords stepped forward to protect their interests by hiring armies to defend them, their estates, and the peasants who worked for them. These armies were composed of warriors called samurai. As time went by, these samurai warriors grew in number and formed their own clans.