MEDIEVAL HISTORY NOTES: JAPAN, KOREA, AND THE MONGOLS
I. The Mongols Conquer China
-The Mongols were nomads from the plains of Central Asia, north of China. They were fierce warriors, said to “live in the saddle” because they spent so much time on horseback.
-By the 1200s, they were a tough military force. Under the leadership of Genghis Khan, they began forging an empire that eventually included China and Korea in the east, stretched into Russia and Eastern Europe in the west, and extended to the southwest as far as the Persian Gulf.
-Genghis Khan had conquered all of northern China by 1215. But the southern Song empire continued to resist. It was left to Genghis Khan’s grandson Kublai Khan to complete the conquest of China and to rule it.
-Kublai Khan came to power in 1259. Within 20 years, he had toppled the last Song emperor. From his capital at the present-day city of Beijing, Kublai Khan declared himself emperor of China.
-He named his new dynasty Yuan, which means “beginning,” because he intended that Mongol rule of China would last for centuries.
-The Mongols centralized government in China. They did not allow the old Chinese ruling class to govern. High government positions were reserved for Mongols and were even given to foreigners rather than to Chinese.
-The Mongols also kept their own language and customs rather than adopting Chinese culture. They did, however, allow the practice of many religions.
-Visitors from all lands were welcome at Kublai Khan’s court. One of these was Ibn Battutah, an African Muslim. Another was a Christian from Europe, Marco Polo. He came from Venice in present-day Italy in 1271.
-After returning to Europe, Polo wrote about his travels. He described the riches of Kublai Khan’s palace, China’s efficient mail system, and its well-maintained roads.
-Marco Polo’s writings sparked increased trade between Europe and China. China prospered under Kublai Khan, but not under the khans, or emperors, who followed him.
-In 1368, a Chinese peasant led an uprising that overthrew the foreign rulers and ended Mongol rule of China.
Section 2: Medieval Japan
I. Introduction
-In A.D. 882 a group of more than 100 officials sailed across the sea from China to Japan. They were from a kingdom in Manchuria, north of China. They carried greetings for the Japanese emperor.
-When the emperor heard the news, he was pleased. This visit would give the Japanese a chance to display their achievements. The emperor’s name was Yozei. At the time, he was only 14 years old.
II. A Country of Islands
-Japan is an archipelago, or chain of many islands, in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of the Asian mainland. It is about 500 miles from the coast of China but it is only 100 miles from Korea.
-The islands of Japan were formed by volcanoes, and earthquakes are common in the region.
-The islands of Japan are mountainous. The mountains make traveling by land difficult. As a result, the sea became an important highway for the Japanese.
-On the other hand, for centuries the sea helped to protect Japan from invaders. Over time, this isolation also led the Japanese to develop a distinctive way of life.
III.The Heian Empire
-The emperor Yozei ruled Japan during the Heian period, which lasted from 794 to 1185. Before this time, Japan’s culture—including its literature, laws, and religion—was similar to China’s.
-But during the 800s, Japan began to develop its own traditions. In fact, official relations between the Japanese and Chinese governments ended in 894. The split would last for more than 500 years.
-Heian emperors ruled from a new capital, Kyoto. Modeled after Chang’an, the great city of Tang China, it was a rectangle of tree-lined streets.
-The Heian period was a mostly peaceful time, during which Japanese culture thrived. Fine architecture, literature, and beautiful gardens all became a part of life for the nobility.
-Life for most of the population, however, was very different. Farmers, fishers, traders, and builders were usually poor and spent their time doing hard work.
-The nobles believed that the importance of their families and their positions within the government set them apart from others. But even among the nobles, people belonged to different ranks or classes.
-In fact, noblemen wore specially colored robes related to their position in society. Noblewomen were not affected by such rules because they could not hold official positions in the government.
IV. Feudalism in Japan
-During the 1000s, the Japanese emperor began to lose power. He continued to rule the capital, but he had less control over the rest of Japan.
-At the same time, the nobles gained greater power and wealth. They owned estates, or large tracts of land, outside the capital. The work on these estates was done by peasants.
-This kind of economic system, in which poor people are legally bound to work for wealthy landowners, is called feudalism.
-Rich estate owners became so independent that they often disobeyed the emperor. They even hired private armies. The nobles paid these armies to defend them, their estates, and the peasants who worked for them.
-The armies were made up of warriors called samurai.
-Samurai warriors followed a strict set of rules for behavior, called bushido. They swore an oath to follow these rules without question.
-According to bushido, honor meant more than wealth or even life itself. The code said that a samurai must never show weakness or surrender to an enemy. The true samurai had no fear of death, and would rather die than shame himself.
-Over time, the samurai warriors grew in number and formed their own clans. Each clan promised loyalty to a powerful warlord, or daimyo. The daimyo expected his samurai warriors to be willing to give their lives for him.
-As the different warlords grew in power, small wars broke out among them. Eventually, the Minamoto clan became the most powerful.
-In 1192, the emperor gave the title of shogun, or supreme military commander, to the leader of the Minamoto clan. Minamoto Yoritomo became the supreme ruler of all Japan. He set up the Kamakura shogunate, a series of military dynasties.
V. Japan and the Outside World
-Within a century after shogun rule began, Japan was threatened by outsiders. One group came from Mongolia, north of China. Under their fierce and brilliant leader Kublai Khan, the Mongols had already conquered China and Korea.
-Kublai Khan tried to invade Japan twice, and failed both times. For nearly 300 years after the Mongols were defeated in the 1200s, few foreigners came to Japan.
-In 1543, several Portuguese ships were blown off course and landed on Japan’s coast. The Japanese showed great interest in the foreigners—especially in their guns.
-In the years that followed, a lively trade developed between East and West. Many European traders and missionaries made the long voyage to these islands in the Pacific.
-And thousands of Japanese converted to Christianity. The European influence in Japan did not last long, however.
-In 1603, Tokugawa Ieyasu became shogun. Ieyasu was determined to bring order to the country. To end the fighting among warring samurai bands, Ieyasu divided Japan into about 250 regions.
-The Tokugawa shogunate ruled Japan until 1867. It was a period of peace. Food was plentiful, the population increased, trade flourished inside Japan, and a merchant class developed.
-A type of Buddhism called Zen became popular in Japan. It emphasized meditation, the practice of good deeds, and reverence for nature.
-Theater and poetry also thrived under the Tokugawas. Haiku—three line poems that express a feeling or picture in only 17 syllables—were greatly admired.
-Plays featuring life-sized puppets were popular. So was the Kabuki theater. Kabuki combines drama, dance, and music.
-At the same time, the Tokugawa shogunate was isolating Japan from foreign influences. Even Tokugawa Ieyasu had worried that Europeans might try to conquer Japan.
-He and the shoguns who ruled after him decided that Japan should remain isolated from Westerners. They outlawed Christianity and forced Europeans to leave.
-By 1638, they had closed Japan’s ports, banning most foreign travel and trade. The shoguns also stopped the building of large ships that could travel long distances. For more than 200 years, the Japanese would remain cut off from the outside world.
SECTION III: MEDIEVAL KOREA
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KOREA’S GEOGRAPHY
-Korea is located on a peninsula in East Asia.
-While Korea is not an island, it is bordered on all sides by water.
-To the northwest is the Amnok River, which flows down from Mount Paektu.
-The Amnok River, which separates Korea from China, travels 500 miles southwest to the Korea Bay.
-There, it empties into the Yellow Sea on Korea's western border.
-To the northeast, the Tumen River separates Korea from China and Russia.
-The Tumen River flows northeast to the Sea of Japan, which borders Korea to the east.
-Mountains and hills almost completely cover Korea's surface.
-However, there are lowlands along the southern and western coasts.
-It is in the lowlands where the country's farmland and most of its people are found.
-Even these coastal areas are not completely flat, though.
-They're covered with rolling plains and low hills.
-A system of rivers flows to the west and south in the southern part of Korea.
-These rivers include the Han, Kum, Naktong, and Somjin rivers.
-Because they make inland travel easier, these rivers are important for business.
-Korea's nearness to Japan has been both troublesome and helpful to Korea.
-However, Korea’s nearest neighbor, China, has had the most effect on Korea's history.
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OLD CHOSON
-The earliest known Korean state was Choson.
-It was built in the Taedong River basin, in northern Korea.
-The legend is that Choson was founded by Tan’gun.
-His father was believed to be the son of heaven.
-His mother was said to be a bear in the form of a woman.
-In 108 BCE, China's Han Dynasty overthrew Choson.
-The Chinese then established colonies in Korea, making Korea a part of the Chinese Empire.
-Over time, these Chinese colonies became separate tribal states and formed three kingdoms.
-One was Koguryo (GO-gur-yo), which actually had been founded before the Chinese arrived.
-Koguryo had a mighty military.
-The other two kingdoms were Paekche (BEK-chyeh) and Silla (SHIH-lah).
-They were in southern Korea where the Chinese had less influence.
-Silla (SHIH-lah) had a good education system with several schools.
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-It also had strong social and political groups.
-Paekche (BEK-chyeh) had a weak government and military, but its ties with China and Japan were strong.
-In spite of their differences, the three kingdoms had many things in common.
-They all adopted the same writing system based on idu, the Chinese system of writing.
-Over time, this became a Korean system called hunmin chongum.
-The term means “correct sounds for instructing people.”
-At first Koguryo was the most powerful kingdom.
-However, Silla joined forces with China's Tang Dynasty.
-Together, they overthrew Paekche in 660 and Koguryo in 668.
-Eight years later, in 676, Silla drove out the Chinese and took control of the peninsula.
-Silla’s culture, and its Chinese influence, would shape life in Korea for hundreds of years.
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BUDDHISM IN SILLA’S KOREA
-The leaders of Silla ruled Korea as an absolute monarchy.
-This is a type of government in which the monarch, usually a king or a queen, has complete control.
-Monarch comes from two Greek words--”mono” meaning “one” and “arkos” meaning “to rule.”
-A monarch is a single ruler.
-The nobles held positions in government and controlled some land.
-However, once they left office, they lost control of the land.
-In this way, the real power remained with the monarch.
-Buddhism was a key part of life in Korea under Silla rule.
-The Chinese had brought Buddhism to Korea much earlier.
-It became popular on the peninsula between the 300s and the 500s.
-Buddhism is a religion and a philosophy that teaches that life is suffering.
-The only way to be free from suffering is to turn away from worldly desires such as wealth, fame, and material goods.
-Buddhism affected almost every part of Korean life, including politics and art.
-To this day, beautiful Buddhist temples and works of art from this period can be seen throughout Korea.
-Buddhism became very important to the Korean people.
-In fact, over time, religious leaders became more powerful than political leaders.
-As political leaders lost influence and struggles grew among the nobles, Silla’s grip on Korea began weakening by the 800s.
-By 935, the three kingdoms were once again becoming separate nations.
- However, this time Koguryo, now known as Koryo, was the most powerful of the three.
-The Western name Korea developed from Koryo.
-A statesman and warrior named Wang Kon founded Koryo.
-He brought the three kingdoms back under one rule and established the Koryo dynasty.
-The Koryo Dynasty did well over the next hundred years, in part due to its system of government.
-Following China’s example, Korea replaced the old tribal system with a centralized system of government.
-It included civil service exams-- tests that government workers had to pass to get a job.
-One product of the Koryo Dynasty that is still greatly appreciated today is its artwork and pottery.
-Celadon, which is greenish stoneware, is one example.
-Buddhism inspired this pottery.
-Buddhist monks made beautiful cups, bowls, and other pieces for their ceremonies.
-Later, Korean artists perfected Chinese methods of copper glazing to add detailed designs to the celadon.
-This pottery became famous throughout Asia and was used to decorate palaces.
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KORYO
-Early Koryo society was based on a hierarchical structure.
-Much of the power rested in the upper classes.
-For example, rich landowners made up most of the ruling class.
-For this reason, family heritage ( status, wealth, and tradition passed on from family members) was an important part of life.
-Members of the highest ranking families were awarded government positions.
-They did not need to pass civil service exams that members of the lower class took.
-The peasant, or common, class in Koryo worked on the land.
-They paid taxes to the landowners, who protected them in return.
-This system led to an increase in the power and wealth of the ruling class.
-As more and more peasants paid taxes to landowners, the government received less money.
-Meanwhile, the military class was feeling unfairly treated.
-Military members were not allowed to rise beyond the second of nine government levels.
-Because of this, they had little say in governing the country.
-They also received smaller pieces of land than civilians who held the same government positions.
-In 1170, the military revolted and overthrew the ruling class.
-The confusion that resulted from the military takeover left Koryo open to another attack.
-However, the next attack did not come from China.
-It came from the Mongols.
ESSAY QUESTIONS
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Why did the Tokugawa Shogunate close off trade with the West and how did this period of isolation affect Japan?
Tokugawa was very much afraid that the Spanish and Portuguese might try to conquer Japan as they had the Philippines, the Incas, and the Aztecs. He was told the European powers conquered, killed, and enslaved these peoples. He further feared that because over 300,000 Japanese were Christians, including many daimyos, these people might side with the Europeans in an effort to overthrow the shogunate.
The isolation that began in 1614 prevented Japan from keeping up with European advancements in technology, science, and military power.
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How was the Japanese futile system structured?
The Japanese feudal system closely resembled European feudalism in that land was the basis for wealth. It was held by powerful lords who then parceled it out to lesser lords in return for favors or rewards. The land was worked by peasants, whose lives were very difficult.